Thursday, October 31, 2019

Discuss what is mean by Universal Grammar. How does the process of Essay

Discuss what is mean by Universal Grammar. How does the process of language acquisition provide evidence for Universal Grammar. give concrete examples. What ot - Essay Example As usual, "the company" now has an earlier deadline than they had given me, despite them still not having given me the entire chapter, so I hope you're not late. Best, anon Trask (1995) presented two types of evidence in support of Chomsky's theory that the innate condition of the human brain at birth explained language acquisition, a process that occurs without effort or direct or indirect teaching in children. First, despite the differences in the experiences of children within and across cultures, in deaf and hearing children, and in those who are and are not mentally retarded, the same stages in the same order occur in acquiring language. Second, in support of the role of the human brain at birth, there is evidence that those who have not been exposed to a language past a "critical period" of 12 or 13 years have not been able to learn the rules of a language. Trask (1995) reviewed evidence supporting "universal grammar," a phrase describing Chomsky's revolutionary theory of psycholinguistics, i.e., there are linguistic universals (commonalities among all languages), the human brain is equipped at birth for the acquisition of language, and thus children acquire language without either direct or indirect instruction. ... over the history of human existence, it is disingenuous to describe the demise of the Skinnerian operant-conditioning model (referred to by Trask as the "imitation-and reinforcement model,", p. 140) as occurring "not so many years ago" or, more dramatically, "in recent years" (p. 140). One could provide pages of citations to support recognition of the brief time course of Chomsky's "revolution," but Pinker, himself a giant in psycholinguistic theory (Rondal, 1993), should suffice (interview, Rondal, 1993). Chomsky's theory of language acquisition (beginning in 1959, cited in Pinker's interview, Rondal, 1993) quickly relegated (unusual in the social sciences) to a chapter in the history of psychology the then-accepted Skinnerian operant-conditioning theory that babies learn language by reinforcement of language imitations. Because most humans have observed babies and young children, it is understandable that social scientists, among others, would have recognized the essential correctness of implicating the brain at birth - by comparing, for example, their own struggles in learning a second language, even if in surroundings where the second language was spoken, with the ease with which children not only acquire a first language, but with the ease with which immigrant children, compared to their parents, acquire a second language. Understanding why the theory that language developed as a function only of experience was accepted in the first place requires recognizing the virtual destructi on of experimental psychology caused by the prior "behaviorist revolution" - which virtually outlawed even the thought of innate dispositions (Watson, 1919, as cited in Hunt & Ellis, 2004). In this way, one might think of Chomsky, not to minimize his genius, trained in linguistics,

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

MARKETING FUNDAMENDALS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

MARKETING FUNDAMENDALS - Essay Example Here we will conduct a customer analysis of the markets of Sainsbury's which is the most established supermarket brand in UK. 1 The macro environment of any organization mainly consists of four factors: Political, Economic, Socio-cultural and Technological factors. In order to analyze the macro-environment PEST Analysis is used. In order to understand the influence of factors in the macro-environment upon the consumer behavior of Sainsbury, we will have to undertake the PEST Analysis of Sainsbury. The market of Sainsbury's is mainly the economy and premium customers of UK. In order to understand the affect of macro factors on Sainsbury we will have to study the macro factors of UK. We will proceed as follows: The political environment in UK is one of the most stable in the whole world. There is a Kingdome rule in it for centuries which lead to a well balanced achievement of successful government rules in the country. In order to control the trading system in the country the government has made many regulatory authorities. These authorities ensure the healthy, well-balanced priced, environmental friendly etc aspects of the various business industries in the country. e.g. in January 2007, the government put a lot of pressure on the supermarket and retail industry to cut short the packaging materials as they were adding to the household waste in country. This step was taken in response to the mounted anger among customers who were facing environmental hazards due to a lot of wasted packaging materials. The Independent moved an anti-waste campaign to reduce customers' worries about packaging waste handling and the government fully supported it. The Office of Fair Trading, Food Standards Agency, and Trading Standards Central Agency etc are various regulatory bodies established by the government in order to provide the consumers a safe and well-aware purchasing environment. Such regulatory authorities not only control the various aspects of product/ service qualities of industries but also offer education to the consumers for making informed-buying. There exists a Supermarket Code of Conduct in the country which deals with the relationships of supermarkets and their dealers. It safeguards the interest of the dealers. Economic factors: The economic condition of the country and the pricing strategies of competitors can have a direct impact upon the sales and costs of the Sainsbury's business. The economic condition of UK is very stable and it has been ranked as the 7th most stable and prosperous country in the whole world in a most recent one year analysis of 235 countries. It has even superseded the United States of America which is placed at 22nd position. It shows a growth and stability in the household disposable income of the customers in the coming five years which directly impacts the sales growth. The economical strength of UK depicts the strong purchasing power of the customers indirectly. The customers have a study level of earning and income and therefore can purchase premium products of good quality from any good supermarket in the country. The recent increase in terrorist attacks in the country has posed a greater risk to the sustainability

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Reflection on Research and Analysis Project

Reflection on Research and Analysis Project First Meeting: Before having my first meeting, I attended an open day with Mr. Collin Biggs who gave brief lecture on the requirement of RAP and topics which can be chosen to do a successful RAP. The topic I chose from the Oxford Brookes Project topic areas is number 8 which is The business and financial performance of an organisation over a three year period. For the 1st meeting my mentor Ashley Cooke asked me to write The Introduction of the RAP before having the first meeting. I decided to analyse the financial and business performance of GlaxoSmithKline and Astra Zeneca as a comparator. After choosing the topic and organisation I started to research the information about GlaxoSmithKline and Astra Zeneca. From the website of GlaxoSmithKline and Astra Zeneca, I downloaded their audited financial statement and annual reports for three years periods from 2007 to 2009. Situation: My mentor asked me to send the Introduction of my RAP three days before the meeting so that he can go through the work I had completed and prepare feedback for my 1st meeting. I was unable to send him the Introduction part of my RAP three days before the meeting as I underestimated the work required and I also was not quite familiar with Microsoft Word. I was able to send him the email with the Introduction of my RAP just two days before the meeting. During the first meeting, my mentor was not satisfied with my approach which I adopted to write Introduction of my RAP. Introduction about the company was very much in detail. My mentor told me to be precise and write only relevant information about the company. He also told me that my work was lacking quality as I only used Companys official website and did not refer to independent opinions and views. Lesson Learned: I learnt that I have to manage my time better as I need extra time to deliver my assignments on time as I am lacking the skills of effective use of Microsoft Word. I also learnt that I have to use third partys opinions and reviews about the companys performance which tend to be less biased. Second Meeting: As my first meeting was not up to the scratch so I was advised by my mentor to take some extra time to do sufficient work for my second meeting. He asked me to finish most of the research and analysis work prior to the second meeting. I tried my best to finish all the analysis work necessary to evaluate my project objectives such as trend analysis, ratio analysis, market research and strategic analysis of GlaxoSmithKline Plc and Astra Zeneca Plc. At the end of my second meeting my mentor shocked me when he asked me to prepare Microsoft Power Point slides for presentation. I was not sure how to make such slides using Microsoft Power Point. And I told my mentor there and then that I do not know how to use Microsoft Power Point to prepare slides. He was very helpful and he taught me how to prepare slides using Microsoft Power Point on his laptop. Situation: I was working very well according to the suggestions of my mentor. But I was unable to finish most of the work before time and could not email all the required work to my mentor three days before the second meeting. The reason was that my niece suddenly became sick and she was taken to the Hospital just five days before the second meeting.She was very seriously ill and I had to take my family couple of times to the Hospital. I could not finish my whole work. But I managed myself to attend the second meeting. My mentor told me that he was expecting more work from me. I explained the whole story to him. He inquired about the health of my niece and advised me that I have to be well planned and ready for such incidents and leave some buffer time for such uncertainties. Lesson Learned: I realised that if I would have left some buffer time, I would have completed my work well before the second meeting. Now I realised that I should try my best to finish my work and the task given before time to avoid any mishap or uncertainty. Third Meeting: My mentor asked me to give ten minutes presentation which should be summarised but comprehensive. My mentor told me that my presentation should be a glimpse of my overall RAP. My presentation will be followed by short question and answer session where I will be questioned on my work and my findings about the chosen organisation Situation: I was quite time pressured for my third meeting as I had some work left from my second meeting to complete and extra work to be done for the third time including the preparation of slides for presentation. I had to do rehearsal for my presentations as I have not given any presentations before this. I was a bit worried and nervous about my presentation. Lesson Learned: I learnt I should not leave the work till the last minute from my previous experience as unknowns can happen and delay the process. I gave myself an earlier deadline so that I could finish my work before the original deadline. Due to this I managed to finish my RAP on time. I also learnt a lot from the presentation part of my RAP. I learnt how to make slides on Microsoft PowerPoint as evidence; slides are attached with the submission of my RAP. I made my presentation to the Mentor. I ran out of time and could not complete the presentation well in time. I spent too much time on the introduction and the reason why I choose the organisation. I failed to present the conclusion and recommendation part of my presentation. I could not do justice with my efforts I put in my research work because of the way I presented my report to the mentor. I was not successful because of the lack of planning of my presentation. I did plan what I will present but due to the lack of practice I could not deliver what I was expecting from myself. Nevertheless, I learnt a lot from this experience. I learnt not to be over focused on the irrelevant things and properly giving time to more important areas. Question 2: How well do I think that I have answered the research questions? At the initial stage of my RAP I was confident that I will be able to do my RAP easily on the chosen topic. But in reality the chosen topic and finding information on organisation proved to be hard and challenging for me. I was not sure in the beginning from where should I gather information about GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca. I was carrying out my RAP research on limited information available but I came to know from a friend of mine that British Library is loaded with information regarding any organisation. I got financial and non financial information from British Library about GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca which was enough to do RAP analysis properly. During my secondary research, internet played a pivotal role in gathering data. Internet was of great help when reading up results of GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca for the first quarter of 2010 as this data was not easily accessible from other sources. It was hard for me to decide which ratios should be calculated in ratio analysis as each and every ratio has its own significance and importance. Time was a real issue in this project. I could not allocate time properly to the different areas of my research which I could have done better if I would have had more time. More time would have allowed me to visit more business libraries to get an in depth knowledge of the Pharmaceutical industry and its competitive environment. Question 3: How have you demonstrated your interpersonal skills and communication skills during the project work? Interpersonal and Communication skills are two skills which are not only important in academic life but in professional life as well. These skills facilitate in academics during presentations, class discussions, and project report writing and during professional life like dealing with customers, suppliers, peers and management. During my RAP, I used my interpersonal skills which I learnt through my studies, especially paper F7 (Financial Reporting) of ACCA. Initially the communication with my mentor was not very effective as I struggled to communicate properly with my mentor. My mentor sometimes could not understand my accent and he asked me to repeat few times during my interactions with him. I lost precious time of my meetings with him due to this communication problem. English is not my mother tongue. Even though my English have improved significantly after studying ACCA in England, native English speakers sometime find it difficult to understand me because of my strong accent. My mentor Ashley Cooke has been very patient with me and he never showed any signs of discomfort whilst communicating with me. I realised that in order to communicate effectively I had to be more confident when facing somebody face to face and I should speak slowly and clearly so that even with my strong accent, people could understand me. I have to improve my oral, verbal and non-verbal skills so that Ill be able to perform better both in academics and in work environment. Question 4: How has undertaking the Research and Analysis Project helped me in my accountancy studies and/or current employment role? I learnt a lot by doing my RAP which will help me in my reaming ACCA studies and also when I start my professional job. One of the things, I learnt whilst doing my RAP was how to do a research and gather information about a real world organisation, this helped me in developing my research skills. The research skill will be beneficial to me for my further studies and career. Communicating with people in an effective way was the new learning experience and it is very important for me when I will start my professional job in the future. My communication skills have improved significantly by doing this RAP. I think I would be in a better position to cope with the challenges in the future, which really would not have been possible without undertaking a project like this. Other thing, I learnt a great deal about is IT skills which I lacked before doing this RAP. I was not very familiar with Microsoft Word, Excel and PowerPoint. This project taught me a great deal about these packages as I had to use them to draw graphs, make tables and prepare slides for my presentation. Graphs and appendices in my RAP are evidence of my learnt skills. IT skills are very crucial for a modern accountant to have in order to succeed in this day and age. I knew a little about these software packages before but this project has given me an opportunity to draw graphs using data from tables which I did not know before. This skill will assist me a great deal in my further studies and career. In a nutshell, whilst doing my RAP I learnt how to manage time effectively and meet deadlines, which will not only help me in my academic and professional life but will also, bring positive changes in my life.

Friday, October 25, 2019

Abraham Lincoln :: essays research papers

Abraham Lincoln was born Feb. 12, 1809, in Hardin County, Kentucky. His parents were both born in Virginia. his mother, who died when he was ten years old, of a family of the name of Hanks. His father. Who moved from Kentucky to Indiana when he was eight years old. He said â€Å"It was a wild region, with many bears and other wild animals still in the woods. There I grew up.... Of course when I came of age I did not know much. Still somehow, I could read, write, and cipher ... but that was all." Lincoln made extraordinary efforts to attain knowledge while working on a farm, splitting rails for fences, and keeping a store at New Salem, Illinois. He was a captain in the Black Hawk War, spent eight years in the Illinois legislature, and rode the circuit of courts for many years. His law partner said of him, "His ambition was a little engine that knew no rest." He married Mary Todd, they had four children togather, only one of them lived to maturity, the rest died at an early age. In 1858 Lincoln ran against Stephen A. Douglas for Senator. He lost the election, but in debating with Douglas he gained a national reputation that won him the Republican nomination for President in 1860. As President, he built the Republican Party into a strong national organization. Further, he rallied most of the northern Democrats to the Union cause. On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves within the Confederacy. Lincoln never let the world forget that the Civil War involved an even larger issue. This he stated most movingly in dedicating the military cemetery at Gettysburg: "that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain--that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom--and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Literacy Education Essay

Education is provided for all, it is our federal government’s promise that education be accessible to everyone. But what if a student is not able to learn or has difficulty acquiring knowledge? They are then given the opportunity to attend a remedial class so that they can cope up with the lessons. But what if the student is not actually illiterate or in need of remedial classes but only needs a little help in adjusting to the current lesson plan? This is what Mike Rose realized as he worked his way through his own schooling and later on as an educator. During his early education, Mike Rose was not a straight A student nor did he stand out among his peers, his early school life was quite ordinary. In Lives on the Boundary, he recounted the difficulties he encountered as a middle class immigrant family but how education and his encounters with some of his teachers had freed him and enabled him to venture out into the world (Graff, 1994). He eventually graduated with a bachelor’s degree from Loyal University and earned a graduate fellowship with UCLA. Rose argues that students stuck in remedial classes are not necessarily there secondary to lack in intelligence but because of lack of support from a social and economic standpoint. He goes on to question standards used in evaluating intelligence and calls for a change in the standards for a more equalized opportunities in education. He also talks of changes in the way literacy is taught to students who are underprepared. He seeks to develop a new curriculum that can adapt to the needs of the students in remedial classes and that is focus on meaningful composition and critical thinking rather than on grammar and usage. He also seeks changes in the philosophy of education that goes beyond the financial benefit and education gained as measured by the usual tests. Failed Education There are times when a student is not able to learn or fails in class and the usual notion is that the child is lacking in intelligence and is placed in a remedial class in order for them to grasp knowledge. But Rose (1989) argues that â€Å"more often than we admit, a failed education is social more than intellectual in origin† (p. 225). What can Rose mean by this? Essentially Rose talks of the educationally underprepared students, those who are often placed in remedial classes, which was labeled as the ‘sick section’ or ‘hospital section’ (p. 210) which is can already be termed a stigma to those who attend these types of classes. But in his book, Rose (1989) makes one realize that many of these students fail and fall into remedial classes not because of lack of intelligence or lack of skills but mainly because of the lack of understanding of their teachers and the lack of opportunity provided for them due to a variety of reasons not limited to the academic. He explores how these factors including their economic situation and social standings affect the performance and perception of these ‘remedial’ students. He notes that the problem of dwindling academic performance and the statistics that show such problems are misguided and should be reassessed to include a broader perspective. He also notes that the current technique used in measuring intelligence and learning from a student is restricted and misrepresented and should be reevaluated. He argues that the usual approaches used in teaching literacy to students who are underprepared is essentially useless, in terms that the student learns essentially nothing if focus is given to grammar and usage and that this way only ends up in fueling the thought that the student lacks intelligence. He seeks a change in the current curriculum to a more accurate and pervasive one. Learning to Read and Write Learning how to read and write correctly is critical to a student’s success in school and in later life. One of the most excellent forecaster of a child’s success in school is the level where a student progresses in reading and writing, but what if the learning process is inhibited by a variety of factors that includes economic and social ones that prevents a student from learning ‘normally’ as other students who don’t face the same circumstances as them. How can learning then be attained? In Crossing Boundaries, Mike Rose recounts his experiences with a number of remedial students who exhibited low test score results at the beginning but through his help was able to understand what was needed from them to be able pass the test (Rose 1989, p. 219). Looking at the various characters depicted in the book, one quickly realizes that a number of the characters embody the typical sample of youth in the US. These students, coming from a vast and multi-cultural society enveloping a variety of shapes, colors, sizes, ethnicity and culture also typifies the Great American Middle Class. Many of the remedial students share a common trait, which is the problem of not being able to communicate well and usually through no fault of their own. Many of our school’s youth are thrown into the lowest rung of the socio-economic ladder even though they do not belong in such places or the very least be able to crawl out of this rung. Much of their talents and gifts wasted away simply because they weren’t able to commune through reading and writing or was not able to grasp the basics and thereby they are left to fend for themselves. Learning is a social process as Rose points out that there is a need for the teacher to connect with the student in order for learning to be achieved, which he has accounted for in many of his experiences in his own schooling and later on in his teaching of remedial students in inner city LA. Rose suggests that once a teacher learns more about his student, it paves the way for the teacher to fully comprehend writing preferences thereby allowing for a more meaningful exchange between the teacher and the student. As an educator Rose argued that test scores and the usual competencies used to gauge a student’s intelligence are obsolete in this day and age. He notes that problems of the dwindling scholastic performance of today’s youth may not be as bad as it is if reforms in teaching and education are put in place in order to adapt to the needs of the remedial class that dictates an eclectic approach that cultivates the inherent intelligence of this youth that focus on creative thinking rather than focus on the traditional approach that is set on the formalities of language. As an educator and proponent of literacy this author realizes that even as one seeks to impart knowledge and guide students towards being literate, one must also be flexible and adaptable to the environment and the student they promise to teach. One realizes that each individual is different in their own rights and the teacher as a proponent of literacy should learn to embrace that individuality adapting to the needs of the student so that learning can actually take place and that the student will be open to learning. The author through this reading also notes that a teacher as he seeks to impart knowledge to his students must also learn about his students in order to really teach them and enable his students to reach their fullest capacities and this might mean adapting a different set of techniques in teaching and learning to cope with the multifarious student body that encompasses today’s school setting. Conclusion Educating a student is generally academic in nature, you need to be able to teach the student the basics of the language in order for the student to be termed literate. Reading and writing concur with literacy. In a sense that when a student understands the lesson and is able to connect the words together and form a coherent and understandable statement then one can derive that the student is indeed literate. But one has to understand that simply because the student cannot comprehend the connection of various words means that they are illiterate. A variety of factors including poverty, responsibilities outside the school and lack of opportunity often leads a student to fail miserably at school. At the end of this reading the author comprehends the reality that there are a variety of students that encompass the school system and that in this sense the teacher is encouraged to develop creative ways of teaching and stimulate the significance of an educator’s vocation. And part of it is learning how to cope with the different situations of various students and even teachers that hinders learning (Preskill, 1998). This author realized the significance of education and what it means to be educated, also this author notes that as education must change in order to adapt to the gush of societal demands and strains. It can be concluded that there is a need for a guiding principle that encourages the system to embrace the rich mix of language, custom and legend that is America (Rose 1989, p. 238). The reading has prompted this author to be a more sensitive educator, someone who is responsive to the consequence of labeling and a teacher who understands the bond between teacher and student. Works Cited: Graff G (1994) Disliking books at an early age. In Falling into theory: Conflicting views on Reading Literature, ed. David Richter. Boston: Bedford Books Preskill, S (1998) Narratives of teaching and the quest for the second self. Journal of Teacher Education 49(5) pp. 344-357. Rose, M (1989) Chapter 8: Crossing Boundaries. In Lives on the Boundary pp. 205-238. New York: Penguin Books.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Managerial Personality Essay

The characteristics of a person’s personality determine his leadership capabilities. Leaders from around the world all have distinct characteristics which define their leadership style and abilities. In a corporate culture, these personality traits can be capitalized upon to direct an organization towards its goals and to do so requires an in depth understanding of the different styles of personality traits that define every individual. A grasp on this knowledge would allow any leader to have a huge impact on the culture and performance of an organization. An observation to be made is the leveraging of personality traits may be utilized in order to achieve corporate goals. To create a competitive advantage, management’s focus must be on cooperation and inspiration. A clear link exists between culture and performance, as shown by Mindy L. Hall (Hall, 2005.) A leader’s personality shapes the environment in which employees function, and can either inspire extraordinary results, or devastating outcomes. Hostile conditions in the workplace will cause anxiety, stress, lack of energy, disengagement, or high turnover. Subsequently, organizations with these issues experience a lower quality of output. This negatively affects the relationship between consumers and businesses, who may find the competition more appealing. A positive engagement between management and employees excite a higher level of performance. From this, a company experiences higher quality output and satisfied customers. A best way to manage a company doesn’t exist; it must be studied, understood, and honed to best match or shape the organization’s culture. The key issue to choosing the appropriate manager in any organization is appreciating what goals and desires are sought after. This report is focused primarily on management as leaders and employees as subordinates. However, it must be understood that subordinates can also play the role as leader in their own context, and it should be encouraged. For example, a group of four employees are assigned to a project. Among this group will emerge a leader who directs the mission to accomplish said assignment. Although this individual does not possess a management title he or she is still leading. That being stated, an organization must possess a deep understanding of its business culture, and employ these concepts when prospecting for competent employees and management. Furthermore, management can recognize certain personality traits among individuals in a team, and manipulate and combine them in a synergetic way. In general, the comprehension of the various personality traits can be used as a measurement of how an individual may respond and perform in an organization’s culture. However, there is much debate as to the extent to which personality can predict behavior, and the extent to which behavior arises from the dynamics of a given situation (Kendrick, Funder, 1991.) The key issues in a corporate context include the big five personality traits, Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs, attitude, and emotional intelligence. The Big Five Personality Traits General agreement exists among researchers regarding the big five personality traits. This model categorizes personalities into five distinct categories: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness. An understanding of these categories often referred to as OCEAN, gives insight to an individual’s underlying personality and how an individual would react in day to day operations of an organization. However, research has shown situational factors play a role in how individuals move between the two extremes of each personality factor. Each factor is a range of two extremes, which most individuals lie somewhere in between. Given this fact, the majority of decisions made by people are representative of their fundamental personality traits. Only when abnormal or extreme situations arise does an individual shift towards the extreme of either end on one or more factors. Managers seeking to create a winning team would do well to not only understand his own personality type, but also individual team member’s personality types. Intimate knowledge of each person among a group will allow for a more harmonious and efficient team effectively utilizing strengths and mitigating weaknesses. Attitude Attitudes of managers and employees contribute greatly to the working environment. An attitude is a collection of beliefs and feelings brought on by life experiences or learned from others, and a positive or negative analysis of one’s environment. Similar attitudes of a leader and a team can create a positive working environment that flows all the way down to the end consumer. Leaders of an organization who commit to reinforcing positive attitudes contribute to a successful business model. Individuals who are satisfied with the work environment make their duties a part of life, and commit skills and knowledge to drive progress of a business. A study conducted by MBA’s and one professor from India, (Tandon, Mishra, Singh, 2011,) explored the relationship between attitude and how an organization perceives its position in society. The study begins by stating that business behavior has both economic and relational impact. Over recent decades there have been significant changes in the social expectation from business and managers. This study found that one’s personal beliefs, values, and attitude drive commitment to social responsibility. In this writing social responsibility can be thought of as organizational commitment or responsibility. The study took a specific look into how spirituality, materialism, relativism, and idealism discriminate between high and low corporate social responsibility (CSR).The study conducted found idealism and spirituality to have a positive influence on CSR, and materialism and relativism had a negative or less of an influence. This implies that managers with more of a concern towards society’s beliefs and values, and less towards material things, will have a greater concern towards creating a positive internal working environment. Moreover, a manager with this attitude may push subordinates towards the same ideals, which create a more efficient environment. In contrast, materialistic and relativistic attitudes contributed negatively towards CSR. This suggests that individuals with these attitude types can create an environment where monetary gain and possession of assets are the only goal, and right and wrong is near irrelevant. This mentality can have a devastating effect on society’s perception of a corporation. Moreover, the connection between working peers can be non-existent, and coordination would lack causing inefficiency. A manager’s attitude can bring about the benefits of a positive working environment by keeping a positive attitude towards a given position in an organization. An attitude based on working towards an end goal, which produces the greatest good for society and a corporation, would be an ideal mentality for any organization. Attitudes contribute to a successful business model because individuals who are satisfied make their duties a part of life, and commit their skills and knowledge to driving the progress and success of the business. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a theory of human motivation based on increasing levels of needs. This theory suggests that human needs are fulfilled one at a time by accomplishing basic needs and proceeding upwards towards advanced needs. Although there is much debate as to the accuracy of these levels research has suggested a correlation between the fulfillment of these needs and happiness. Managers with an understanding of what level individuals in a team are on can manipulate motivation techniques to stimulate productivity and efficiency. Maslow’s hierarchy can be applied to compensation, job design, management techniques, or anything that requires a higher level of motivation. Maslow’s hierarchy is a systematic way of thinking about the different needs employees have at any given point and explains different reactions they may have to similar treatment (Carpenter, Bauer, Erdogan, 2009.) The definition provided implies that each individual perceives needs differently, and managerial techniques in this context must be applied more specifically. For example, two employees receive a raise after a massive project was finished. The first employee is satisfied with the raise because her safety, and subsequently her physiological, needs had been fulfilled. The second employee felt his needs had not been satisfied. His goal in finishing the project was to prove his worthiness as a manager. His intention through his hard work was to climb the corporate ladder. He was looking to fulfill his esteem and self-actualization needs. Physiological needs are satisfied through compensation, since a paycheck allows individuals to find nourishment, shelter, etc. Compensation can satisfy more than one need, however. Safety needs can be satisfied through benefits such as 401K, health plans, or paid time off. In many ways, compensation satisfies both physiological and safety needs. In addition, organizations must take in consideration the physical safety of employees. Managers have a duty to enforce safety precautions where working conditions may be hazardous. When a position requires employees to take physical risk an organization is expected to protect workers from unnecessary harm, and to compensate for the higher risk. When feelings of anxiety are low safety needs have been fulfilled. Social needs can be met through satisfactory social interaction with others in which there is interaction. The goal in satisfying this need is to cause individuals to feel accepted and loved. In a business context there must be a focus on acceptance over love. Creating a friendly environment is a great start to satisfying this need. Company sponsored games, events, holiday parties, and other social activities are great examples of how to socialize a staff. Also, team meetings where the staff can voice their concerns or ideas can allow team members to better understand each other. Esteem needs can be satisfied after one feels she has been accepted into a group. These needs can be fulfilled through recognition. It must be stressed that individuals enjoy being praised for their accomplishments, but praise only works for a limited amount of time. Managers must look to promote individuals with a high need for esteem. A raise in position and pay communicates an achieved status, and reinforces her ability to achieve corporate goals. Esteem needs lead into self-actualization. This need lies on the top of the hierarchical pyramid. Similar to fulfilling esteem needs, self- actualization can be met by giving an employee more responsibility, greater challenges, or more stimulating opportunities. Self-actualization is characterized by an individual having met all previous needs, and is now using his or her full potential and capabilities. Maslow’s hierarchy is important for organizations to apply. Humans are motivated by particular needs according to their current life situations and future goals. Furthermore, individual needs are in accordance with cultural backgrounds such as race, religion, or country of origin. It must also be noted that individuals are not always striving to fulfill the same needs. The needs model must be applied on an individual basis. Managers who realize their needs are being fulfilled can be used as a resource for understanding their subordinates needs, and act accordingly. When an organization applies this model to a workforce there is an increase in job satisfaction and loyalty. Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is the ability to control extreme changes in mood and emotions, and is a characteristic of an effective and competent leader. When a manager cannot control temporary emotions that are brought on by day to day interactions it can bring an entire organizations progress to a halt. Emotions are contagious and create a domino effect. Simply realizing when a certain emotion is present allows one to better handle temporary emotional fluctuations, while containing it as to not affect others. That being said, it is of utmost importance for a manager to possess a deep understanding of his or her own emotions (self-awareness), and how to deal with each. An individual who is self-aware is humble enough to accept constructive criticism and mature enough to address the areas of concern. The impact of hiring individuals with high emotional intelligence is high productivity and retention of high-quality employees. Golnaz Sadri, PhD, defines E.I. as the ability to accurately perceive emotions, access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth, (Sadri, 2012.) The ability to accurately perceive emotions allows one to recognize facial and bodily gestures, and interpret their meaning. A manager who has this ability can intercept other’s cues, or tells, that signal irritability. This skill is recognized as constructive when dealing with scenarios such as a team who can’t come to an agreement, a irate client or customer, or when negotiating. For the most part, emotional intelligence is a learned skill, and an indicator of useful experience. Conclusion Manipulating strong personality traits and striving to improve negative personality traits can have a huge impact on a manager’s career, and more broadly can impact a corporation in tremendous ways. Today manager’s has access to information to help them maximize team productivity using psychology. Using psychological strategies to hire the right employees and build teams is the competitive edge companies need in this tough economic climate. REFERENCES Camgoz, S., Karan, M., & Ergeneli, A. (2011). Part II Leadership, Social Capital, and Personality: Relationship Between The Big Five Personality and The Financial Performance of Fund Managers. 15, p139 Carpenter, M., Bauer, T., & Erdogan, B. (2009). Need-Based Theory of Motivation. In Principles Of Management (10th ed., p14.1) Hall, M. (2005). Shaping Organizational Culture: A Practitioner’s Perspective. 2(1), p1-16 Kendrick, D. T., & Funder , D. C. (1991). Situation versus Personality Debate. Retrieved from http://wilderdom.com/personality/L6-3SituationVsPersonality.html McCrae, R., & Costa, P. (1995). Domains and Facets: Hierarchal Personality Assessment Using The Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64(1), p23 Pannapacker, W. (2012, April 15). Screening Out The Introverts. The Chronicle. Sadri, G. (2012). Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Development. 41(3), p536 Tandon, A., Mishra, S., & Singh, E. (2011). What Discriminates The Prospective Manager’s Attitude Towards Corporate Social Responsibility? 10(3), p54-60 Whitbourne , S. K. (2010, October 19). The Neuroticism Paradox | Psychology Today.Psychology Today: Health, Help, Happiness. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201010/the-neuroticis m-paradox Witt, L.A., & Andrews, M.C. (2006). The Predisposition to Engage in Interpersonal Deviance at Work. pHR-F2

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Free Online Math Resources and Tools for Students - Paperell

Free Online Math Resources and Tools for Students Free Math Resources and Tools for Undergraduate Students Table of contentAlgebraGeometryTrignometryPre-calculusCalculusOrdinary Differential EquationsLinear and Matrix AlgebraDiscrete MathematicsNumber TheoryNumerical AnalysisProbability TheoryStatisticsOver the past years, we have encountered thousands of students who’ve had academic struggles of all sorts – math being the scariest of all.   We’ve noticed most of their troubles originate from elementary school, where they simply didn’t pay enough attention to topics such as algebra or geometry. This often results in not understanding several other topics such as calculus for college further down the line. This snowball effect causes students to become lost in a course and inevitably results in the student hating or becoming disinterested in the subject.While most people realize how important math is, often times people are unable to grasp some basic concepts that may come in handy when they least expect it – not everyone will find ordinary differential equations practical in life, but many aspects of statistics have real life applications. Some students who major in fields completely unrelated to Math, are so out of practice they even require a calculator to hash out basic arithmetic. Even though many students do not need the subject in their daily life, they are helpless without the use of online tools when they encounter math problems in the real world.On the other hand, there are people who excel at Math who have no problem blowing through a discrete mathematics course, yet, they would love to save time by using automated tools. We all know someone who is clever at finding tricks and lifehacks out of a situation. Skilled, yet lazy students will often find the path of least resistance in the most creative ways. We care about every student out there, which is why we’ve decided to simplify their lives by compiling this list of useful Math resources for students. You can find anything here, starting from a simple calculator , to mind-blowing tricks from the greatest professors.We hope you find the following tools useful, whether you are studying humanities and need to pass that dreaded requirement in trigonometry or an engineering student who needs to brush up on numerical analysis we have organized some useful resources for you.Disclaimer for using tools: we highly recommend not to use automated tools (calculators, graph makers, etc.) unless you want check yourself or got lost in calculations; in all other cases, the best decision for you will be to go back and learn the topic.AlgebraOnline courses12-chapter College Algebra course (free for 30 days)Full College Algebra video course by Missouri State UniversityCollege Algebra course by Saylor Academy with tests and final examStep-by step equation solversEquation and Inequalities solver by SymbolabEquation system solverGraph buildersDesmos’ Graphing CalculatorGraphSketchMath Is Fun Equation GrapherGeometryLearning materialsâ€Å"Geometry† by Ron Larson, Laurie Boswell and Lee StiffIntroduction to Euclidean geometry by Khan AcademyAll formulas, problems and practical tasksCalculatorsCalculators for plane, solid and conic geometry shapes by SymbolabTrigonometryShort Trigonometry Course by Clark UniversityExample questions on TrigTriangle Theorems CalculatorTrigonometric functionsTopics in TrigPre-CalculusGraphing Calculator HelpPre-Calculus lectures with explanationPre-Calculus topics before college math coursesPre-Calcus Formula SheetCalculusCalculus for beginnersInteractive video course by SchoolYourself (Flash Player needed)MIT coursesCalculus with TheoryCalculus with ApplicationsSingle Variable CalculusMultivariable CalculusProblem solversTypical problems and their solutionsCalculus calculators from MathPortalOrdinary Differential EquationsOrdinary Differential Equations (Lecture Notes) By J. MuscatMethods for ODEODE using computer algebraic systemODE calculatorLinear and Matrix AlgebraLearning resourcesLecture by Texas AM UniversityComplete course by Khan AcademyToolsMatrix Determinant CalculatorMatrix Equation CalculatorDiscrete MathematicsFull course by Shai Simonson from Stonehill College with lectures notes, problem sets and examsUndergraduate Seminar in Discrete Mathematics, MIT OpenCourseWareDiscrete Mathematics CalculatorsNumber Theory26 lecture notes from MITIntroduction to number theory The Open UniversityNumerical AnalysisLectures on Numerical AnalysisCourse from MITProbability TheoryWhat is Probability Video resourceFundamentals of probabilityIntro to ProbabilityStatisticsJamie DeCoster’s introductory statistics lectures at Purdue UniversityLarge collection of statistics calculators

Monday, October 21, 2019

buy custom Student Assessment and Program Evaluation Process essay

buy custom Student Assessment and Program Evaluation Process essay The gathering of information by educators on student learning outcomes has been going on for several years. Some of the terms that have been used to describe this process are observing, examining, testing, quizzing, measuring, evaluating, appraising and assessing, but the primary goal of determining the educational achievement of students has remained constant. According to Popham (1999), assessing the students learning goals of professional development is a more complex process than most people anticipate. This is because it entails more than simply documenting students current learning status. Changes in students are the components of most development goals and more specifically, they involve improvements or positive changes. This shows that relevant information must be gathered and at appropriate points in time. To determine whether the students are improving, it may be necessary to assess them at the point of entry and then at a later point. Comparisons with other students may al so be necessary to isolate the effects of the professional development program (Johnson Johnson, 1994). Without knowing the students position at the beginning or without comparing them with others in the same level, it might be difficult to determine if any improvement or change has actually occurred. Gathering information at a later point is also important to measure retention and long time learning (Popham, 1999). The intended student learning goals of a program are usually the basis of determining the procedures to be used in collecting evaluation information. The outcomes to be measured can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor (Popham, 199). In any educational program, the procedures and instruments used to assess the programs effects are central. Teachers have several ways of measuring students learning and the choice of an assessment procedure will depend on the stated objectives. This paper will critically evaluate the standardized tests and other alternative assessment programs. Importance of Assessment According to Linn Gronlund (2000), measurement refers to assigning numbers to certain characters of people, objects or events according to a rule governed system. In a classroom context, the rules that are used in assigning the numbers will normally create a ranking that shows how much of the attribute different students possess. They also defined evaluation as the making judgments about the worth or value of a set of measures using a rule governed system. It is important to assess students learning to provide all involved parties with a clear summary of how the student has managed to meet the teachers goals. Assessment of students is also important in order to monitor their progress. Teachers need to know whether their students synthesize their instruction and their understanding of all the material covered over time. This enables the teacher to make arrangements for students whose understanding is slower or faulty, such as remedial instruction (Linn Gronlund, 2000). Discovering that a student has any difficulty in understanding, and cannot learn at the same pace, like the rest of the students, it allows the teachers to decide on the appropriate and timely course of action. Other positive effects on various aspects of learning and instruction also arise from assessing a students performance. According to Brookhart (2000), classroom assessment directs students on what is important to learn, influences their motivation and understanding of competence. Assessment also structures students approaches to personal study and fosters the development of improved learning strategies and skills. It is one of the most potent forces influencing learning. Standardized Tests Goals and Strengths Commercially available standardized tests are commonly used by many programs to measure academic achievement of the students. Standardized tests are administered and scored in a standard or consistent manner. They are composed of a set of open ended or constructed responses items meant to measure higher degree of cognitive skills (William, 2006). The manner of scoring is usually predetermined and the procedures, conditions of administration and the interpretations consistent and standard. This consistency in administration and scoring allows more reliable comparison of results across test takers. The use of standardized exams in the U.S started in the 20th century after the Second World War. This was contributed by the need to standardize the highly de-centralized education system. The design of standardized tests is to provide the best match possible to what is viewed as the typical curriculum at a specific grade level. They provide quantifiable information (scores, proficiency levels, etc.) and outcomes that can be used in screening programs, for example, in identifying students whom may require additional assessment (Silbert Hintze, 2005). Using standardized tests is also advantageous because they provide information on a students areas of strength and weakness. Standardized tests also allow a comparison between a student and his peers in the same grade or age, and hence, assess development. These tests can also be used to assess a students progress over time, for instance, by re-administering a test after an intervention or a remedial program. The results of these tests can also be used to generalize a students skills. The results of one test can also be used to measure whether a student is improving uniformly by comparing one subject results with results of a different subject (Silbert Hintze, 2005). Critics Many people are of the view that standardized tests are important because they help measure students using a consistent process, teachers are held more accountable and it becomes easier to understand where problems occur. However, there has been criticism on the social and cultural repercussions of standardized tests. Becker (2001), argues that since these tests are designed by people in a position of power, it is possible for cultural bias against the have nots to arise. Since high performing schools are rewarded, while poorly performing schools are sanctioned by the current system, critics propose that standardized tests reward those at an advantage while the disadvantaged continue to hurt. This system is viewed to be exacerbating the race and class divide in the society through the education system (Burns, Dean Klar, 2004). Another concern is the increasing pressure on teachers to produce high test results. This comes about since teachers will teach for the test purposes instead of exploring approaches that may not produce results onpaper. Research on student achievement has highlighted problem associated with over-reliance on standardized tests. Such tests are now administered at every grade level and success or failure of programs defined in terms of test scores. Teacher and administrator salaries and their job securities are also linked to student performance in the standardized tests. The main areas of criticism are the content of assessment, formatting of items and item bias (Fuchs et al, 1991). Standardized tests generally often rely on multiple-choice questions. This item format provides for greater coverage of content and objective as well as efficient scoring. However, the item of interest by the format is the identification of the right answer. This type of response does not necessarily correspond to the type of responses regularly exhibited by students in the classroom, for example, the acquisition and synthesis of information (Deno, 2003). If the students are not familiar to the structure within which they are required to respond by the item format, then, their test performance may be affected. In another scenario, a student may identify the correct form when it appears as a discrete item in a test format, but use the form incorrectly in communication contexts. In this case, the results of a standardized test may make a student appear more proficient than performance would show (Shapiro, 2004). Inclusion of items that are biased against some kinds of students has also been a cause for criticism. These include ethnic minorities, limited English proficient, rural or inner city students. This criticism is based on the fact that the items reflect the culture, language, and/or the style of learning of the middle class majority (Shapiro, 2004). Test companies have endeavored to remove culture based items in tests, but this omission of questions from a meaningful context has been challenging for minority students. There are arguments that this method only measures superficial knowledge or learning. This is because students can easily cram what they think will appear in the test and fail to give other areas much attention. Standardized tests may also fail to match specific objectives and goals of a program or institution (Klecker, 2000). This therefore makes them more unlikely to provide the most appropriate way to evaluate the program. Criterion referenced data is considered more useful than norm-referenced data, the type produced by standardized tests. This arises from the premises that norm-referenced data does not clearly show the progress of a student over time. Criterion based data also allows easy administration of pre and post tests to measure development, while a standardized test may be cost prohibitive to administer such (Becker, 2001). Norm data may use norms rather than true national sample, thus making it unfair to those taking it. Another challenge is that it may prove difficult to isolate what changes are required since it is more summative than formative. This makes it difficult to identify areas of weaknesses and develop means to assist students with difficulties. In addition, receiving the results on time is also a challenge (Brookhart, 2000). Critics argue that the measures used in standardized tests fail to inform instruction adequately. For some students with disabilities, the standardized administrations may not be possible. Some accommodations may need to be done to allow the disabled students to take some test in the established standardized way (Becker, 2000). However, these accommodations can become modifications to then trait under measurement. The items used in standardized tests are also frequently unrelated to the behaviors and tasks required in a classroom setting. Recommendations for Improvement Non cognitive factors such as fatigue, attention, anxiety, can influence the test results taken at one point in time. These results will therefore be a reflection of the students ability or behavior at that point in time. The results of standardized tests also fail to provide the necessary information required in restructuring curricular or instructional change (Gay Airasian). These procedures also prevent the examiner from determining conditions under which the students performance may improve. Students with a language deficit can be used better to explain the shortcomings of this system. Assessing the performance of these students on their language proficiency will be unfair since their level of performance may be higher if instruction is delivered using a language they are proficient in (Popham, 1999). The goal of education is to produce morally developed citizens who fit well in the society. Education also provides an individual with an opportunity to develop skills and learn how to solve problems. Since people have different skills and abilities, it is important to acknowledge this and provide different forms of evaluating student achievement to avoid bias (Griffin, 1994). Measuring the cognitive (knowledge and understanding), affective (attitudes, beliefs and dispositions) and psychomotor (skills, behaviors and practices) outcomes of a program is important. Cultural, racial, class and gender differences must be taken into account by any assessment task or procedure. In this context, there are strong arguments favoring educators considering using alternative methods of assessing students and evaluating the program (Klecker, 20000. Even as educators continue to use standardized tests, it is necessary to supplement them with other types of assessments. Such additional forms of assessment are; Group Tasks or Activities Student learning can alternatively or supplementary be assessed by their performance on group tasks or activities. For instance, if the written test covered 25 of the 50 items covered, then the students can be put into groups and the remaining 25 items covered. These groups are composed of students who work together to tackle a complex problem or carry out a detailed experiment. The structuring of an appropriate group activity is such that each student has a vital role in the task. Group tasks, like any other authentic cooperative learning activities, should include a combination of individual accountability and group responsibility (Johnson Johnson, 1994). A popular design of group tasks is assigning students to perform an activity as a group. Each student is then expected to produce a written product based on that experience. Most group tasks and activities are used by individual teachers as part of their instructional process, but some large scale assessment systems include them as well. As explained by Popham (1999), they provide information on two key learning goals: They give information on a students ability to apply skills to produce outcomes that can be evaluated. They show a students ability to work with others in a team to find solutions to problems. However, it is important to address the limitations of group tasks and activities. Ensuring involvement of all students in developing group tasks and activities can prove challenging and time consuming (Popham, 1999). Scoring students responses can also be time consuming especially if the class is a large one. With proper planning, group tasks and activities are the best way to assess students if involving students in team work is one of the cognitive goals. Group tasks can also provide an important source of information on complex learning results when paired with specific scoring criteria that students are taught before the group activity (Klecker, 2000). Cooperative groups enhance a students understanding of concepts through interaction with peers verbally. They also provide information to the teacher on the cognitive processes students employ in giving responses. Group tasks are also an important aspect in reinforcing the learning environment in a classroom (Johnson Johnson, 199 4). Portfolios and Other Collection of Students Work These are compilations of students work that show what they have achieved so far. Most portfolios include collections of students written papers and other works completed in their process of learning (William, 2006). These collections demonstrate the progress of a student over the years. This form of assessment encourages the participation of all interested individuals (teachers, students, parents) in the documentation of the learning process. The papers are derived from a students daily classroom work. It involves taking samples of a students work, recording of students observations of learning experiences, and evaluation of students processes and outcomes. Although information from this type of assessment can be used for grading purposes, the main goal is to improve the instruction methods and students learning (Shapiro, 2004). Curriculum Based Assessment Although it falls under criterion-referenced testing, curriculum based assessment is considered an alternative to traditional standardized norm-referenced academic testing. It refers to a measurement that relies on direct observation and recording a students performance in the local curriculum as a basis of gathering information to make instructional decisions (Deno, 2003). Curriculum based assessment (CBA) has also been termed as direct assessment of educational skills, and is based on the assumption that assessment should be on what has been taught. CBA involves repeated measurement of a students academic skills (Linn Grolund, 2000). In each area of learning, probes are selected and used to gauge student performance. The probes are developed from curricular materials available in the students immediate learning environment. CBAs therefore provide a structured method to assess a students performance based on curricular assignments used in their actual learning environment (Brookhar t, 2000). The basic argument underpinning this assessment approach is that in evaluating their progress, students should be observed in their academic environment. Dynamic Assessment This refers to a type of learning assessment that makes use of an active teaching process. The goal of this process is to provide a modification in an individuals cognitive functioning and observe the changes that result in the examinees learning and problem solving strategies. The main goals of dynamic assessment are to: Assess the ability of a student to identify the principles behind a problem and use this understanding to provide a solution. Assess the most appropriate type and amount of teaching required to teach a student a specific principle. Understand any cognitive deficits and non cognitive factors that help explain failure in students performances and whether teaching can modify such factors (Gay Airasian, 1999). Dynamic assessment is a contrast of standardized assessment where examiners present items to examinees without providing any guidance or any other form of intervention designed to improve the students performance (Brookhart, 2000). In static assessment, an individuals deficits and disabilities are accepted and modification is done on the environment to allow the person work within the identified limitations (Johnson, Johnson Holubec, 1994). On the contrary, dynamic assessment is based on active modification where efforts are made to remediate the deficits or provide the individual with alternative strategies to solve probes to supplement their areas of weakness. Conclusion High stakes testing is linked to overreliance on standardized tests as the primary means of assessment and as the principle source of curriculum content. These high stakes testing poses critical consequences to students since use of a single measure (standardized test score) may determine graduation or promotion to the next level. Instructors are now held accountable of students performances (Becker, 2000). Without doubt, testing and accountability are important aspects of a program since assessment practices are the key to accountability and improved teaching processes. However, opposition arises from the use of a single measure of assessment through standardized tests. The decisions regarding progress, promotion and gradation using a single indicator to measure an individuals learning violate the ethics of teaching. The higher the stakes for testing, the greater the emphasis teachers will place on test preparation and teaching to the test as opposed to meaningful learning. Assessment should be driven by innovative curriculum design and effective teaching practices. Other types of assessments should be used to supplement standardized tests to enhance the spirit of research among students. As asserted by Becker (2001), no clear evidence exists that high test scores reflect actual improvement in student learning either at the individual or group level. No single measure can be used as a definitive measure of a students knowledge. Student assessment is constructive if the educational approaches used are research oriented and emphasize on equity in the academic processes. Not all students demonstrate well what they have learnt using standardized tests, biased assessment, policies and practices should not be used since they limit learning opportunities for individuals and hinder curriculum development and teaching. Buy custom Student Assessment and Program Evaluation Process essay

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Breakfast Roll Call

6:30 A.M. My peaceful sleep and surreal dreams are shattered by the boom of a howitzer cannon. The resounding thunder of the cannon rolls across Lake Maxinkuckee without hesitation. The Culver day has begun. A naA?ve callboy rushes to make reveille call: â€Å"Notice, sirs! Notice, sirs! Bravo Company sirs, notice! Reveille has sounded. Uniform of the day, Duty A, sirs!† I aimlessly shuffle my hands along the window ledge for my glasses; it doesn’t help being awake before sunrise. I lie in bed for a moment, half asleep, pondering the decision I made to become a Culver cadet. I guess I missed the brochure advertising reveille at 6:30. My feet slap down on the cold tile. I open my door to the hallway’s bright lights. The fortunate few who possess the talent to sleep through the cannon remain in their beds until I act as the cannon’s back up. Shuffling along the hallway, I fulfill my position as hall officer. The battered, half-broken broomstick I use every morning doesn’t miss a door—smack, wack. â€Å"Let’s go, get up!† But my words travel across the barren hallway without acknowledgment. On the way back to my room, I give an extra hard wake-up-call to any cadets still sleeping, this time using my fist and the broomstick—bang, wham. From inside the rooms, a common complaint escapes, â€Å"Ok, I’m up! Go away.† It’s too early for leadership. Once in my room, I take my clothes off, grab my towel, and retreat to the warmth of the showers. I turn on the closest knob. Cold water sprays out of the head at first. I jump and back away quickly, every time, I never remember. The callboy’s voice reaches the shower. â€Å"Notice, sirs! Notice, sirs! Bravo Company sirs, notice! First call to BRC, uniform for BRC, duty A, sirs!† My supply of warm water ends a bruptly and I abandon the lighthearted atmosphere of the shower room. In my room I put on my wool duty-pants and tight-fitting duty-A shirt. Formation in the company streets is dark and dreary. Unit Commanders shout commands. â€Å"Form up! Let’s go! Left face, right face.† First sergeants bark out names, â€Å"Carey . . . Here! Hamm . . . Here! Darnell . . . Darnell! Here!† A hundred and fifty drowsy infantry cadets march to the dining hall with the beat of a drum guiding them. Once we’re inside, food lines are long. Glasses slip from lethargic hands— Clink, clink, crshhh. I direct the new cadets to a table and remind them: Personal Inspection is at 7:20 a.m.

Friday, October 18, 2019

Expo 67 (1967 International and Universal Exposition) Essay

Expo 67 (1967 International and Universal Exposition) - Essay Example er of visitors that toured the general exhibition fair, as well as the entertainment, different Expo pavilions elected by different countries and the wonderful La Ronde, which represented everything that an amusement park should be (10). The theme of Nationalism was pronounced the loudest during this fair, than in any other event of the Canadian history. Nevertheless, the success of the 1967 Canadian International and Universal Exposition did not occur without challenges, and the success was only achieved through the sacrifices, determination, commitment and hard work of various key individuals (). Nevertheless, despite the wave of nationalism that was created by the Expo 67 general fair, the concept of male dominance is reflected in the buildup, construction and planning of Expo 67, where all the major players in the preparation of the Expo happened to be men (). Additionally, while the event is one of the major nationalism pronounced event, the nationalism, patriotism and loyalty of the Canadian business community was put into question during this major event. Therefore, this discussion seeks to analyze the Canadian 1967 International and Universal Exposition as a major Canadian nationalism pronouncement event, wh ile still assessing the concept of male dominance in Canada in 20th century, as represented by this major event. The accomplishment and success of Canadian 1967 International and Universal Exposition did not come easy, and it took the strong will of a group of men who later came to be known as the ‘Les Durs’, interpreted to mean’ the tough guys’ (). Jean Drapeau, a key figure in the planning, construction and launch of the Expo 67 was the mayor of Montreal at the time, and his commitment to the success of the project still stands as a great show of nationalism. Jean Drapeau did no6t only have a vision for the Expo 67, but also for Expo 68, 69, 70 and so on, by seeking to use the Expo 67 infrastructure as the fairground that would fulfill its

Designing a new project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Designing a new project - Essay Example commercial properties for construction and development, as well as identifying the operations steps required to ensure adequate staffing levels as related to payroll. Further, as part of this expansion initiative, ABC will conduct a strategic assessment of the competitive environment to determine a series of potential best practices for cost reduction and efficiency in this project. There will, of course, be fixed expenditures and variable costs which the new manufacturing facility will incur during its first operational year, however initial budget assessment can determine future methodology in relation to specific areas of cost which might require adjusting. However, the scope of this project is to get the new ABC manufacturing facility up-and-running to full manufacturing capacity, from the ground up, in the period of two years. This proposal highlights the expected operational activities and costs during this project and will provide a review of how progress will be measured and adjusted based on corporate expectations. Identifying a suitable property for development, as Phase One of the project, involves assessing opportunities to seize valuable assets for ABC. The new facility must be within the established budget guidelines and also be sustainable so as not to incur losses in the first series of operating years. However, current trends in the commercial real estate industry have driven prices to, in some instances, record lows (Jones, 28), allowing the company to capitalize on low cost retail property that is market driven. Phase One will also consist of utilizing human capital for the project, which is identified as the labor available at the company’s disposal to ensure productive and efficient operations (Mathis & Jackson, 117). Tangible construction efforts will be handled by external suppliers and professional builders based on a bidding process. As previously mentioned, all supply and purchasing costs can be delivered to the appropriate spending

VIDEO QUESTIONS Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

VIDEO QUESTIONS - Movie Review Example This species of snake is not killed by the high level of toxicity in the newt’s skin so the newt has to evolve and increasing its own toxicity to finally be also able to kill the garter snake which has developed a unique resistance to its poison, unlike what a newt does with its other predators. 3. What is the trade-off for the snake in developing greater resistance to toxicity? - The snake is temporarily paralyzed or slowed down for a few minutes after eating a newt but does not die. The snake moves slower as a trade-off for developing a higher resistance but then becomes more vulnerable to its own set of predators because it cannot move fast enough to get away. 5. Why are antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria so prevalent in prisons? The drugs used in the treatment of tuberculosis were of low quality and in inadequate amount or the regimen was not followed strictly so the TB microorganisms are not killed off entirely and started to evolve into new strains or variants or hybrids which were more resistant to antibiotics. 6. How can evolution domesticate a disease? – Misuse, overuse, and widespread use of antibiotics had effectively made many disease-causing microorganisms seen in the world today to become highly-resistant. But evolution can also domesticate a disease by making it less virulent by reducing its level of toxicity through some means, such as making its spread easier. 7. What does mutualistic symbiosis mean? Give an example. Mutualistic symbiosis means different species of animals or living organisms living together which benefit them both which is opposite to the usual evolutionary picture of constant competition or the so-called biological arms-race. A group (a type of fish) is cleaned by a tiny shrimp of its numerous parasites on its skin. 8. Describe the relation among allergies and asthma among children of farmers and non-farmer. – Children who lived on farms and in contact

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Presenting the first step of the three step writing process Assignment

Presenting the first step of the three step writing process - Assignment Example During the completion step, the writer revises, proofreads, and distributes the final report among the audience. The three step writing process is important to create purposeful presentations, which are comprehensible, brief, and focused, all at the same time. Planning Planning of business messages requires a business professional to do following tasks: A. Analyzing the situation is the most important step of planning, as it includes clearly identifying the purpose of report and analyzing the audience type. It not only saves time but is also convenient in terms of budget. Business message must be purposeful, worthwhile, and realistic, and must go in accordance with the IQ level of the audience. For example, if the intended audience is elderly employees, then it is no use using too many technological words, as they will not be able to understand. B. The information, that should necessarily be ethical and pertinent, is gathered keeping in consideration the needs of the audience. This i nformation outlines the purpose of the business message to be conveyed. For example, business message intended for females must encompass the needs of women only, and not the general population. This may include messages about maternity leave; and, these messages will be laid out in a way that interests only females. C. Medium, through which the message will travel onto the audience, is considered. The writer considers whether to deliver message through, for example, conversation, speech, lecture, phone call, email, or brochure; and, also considers cost and availability of the chosen media. The audiences’ access to the chosen media is also considered. For example, not every person uses computer and internet, that is, electronic media. There may be some individuals who may use internet inside the workplace but do not have computers at homes. So, to deliver the message to general audience, all pros and cons of chosen media are considered. D. Lastly, the information gathered or the message outlined is organized. Organization saves times and makes the message more clear and understandable, while building audience interest at the same time. For example, a claim without evidence is a kind of unorganized message that is not reliable at all. Real World Example Let’s suppose that the employer has to arrange a vacation, and has to ask the employees to report their convenient dates for vacations. The first step would be planning, in which the employer has to analyze the problem. Information about employees and their past vacations is analyzed. Medium is selected. Emails are a common form of interaction between employees, so this channel may be preferred. In writing phase, a clear message is laid out. For example: â€Å"All employees are requested to submit their convenient dates for the oncoming vacation to the manager by October 15th,† is a good message encompassing all kinds of employees. This kind of message is not only clear and simple, but also gives others a chance to collaborate, in a shared environment, with each other and with the officials. In completion step, the message is revised, proofread, and is distributed through the chosen medium, which may be email or a simple report form. Insight I believe that the three step writing process needs the writer to possess basic writing skills; and, that he must be able to understand the importance of clear, concise, accurate, and pertinent business message. I have learnt that an

What best explains peoples willingness to work hard Essay

What best explains peoples willingness to work hard - Essay Example Motivation is something abstract and the difficulties arise when one tries to explain its meaning and application. A wide variety of assumptions have been made on motivation by observing the resultant behaviour of motivation. Based on these assumptions and research findings, motivation has been defined in a number of ways. Vroom defines motivation as a process, which governs choices made by persons or lower organisms among alternative forms of voluntary activity. (Vroom, 1964 as cited in Putti) Motivations are the act of inducing an individual to follow a desired course of action. The desired course of action may be for the good of the individual or for the one who is inducing the individual towards a desired course of action or both. Zedeck and blood contend that motivation is a predisposition to act in a specific goal-directed way. (Sedeck & Blood, 1974 as cited in Putti) Atchison further defines Motivation as the immediate influence on the direction, vigor, and persistence of beha viour. (Atchison, 1964 as cited in Putti) on the other hand Gellerman defines motivation as steering one’s actions towards certain goals and committing a certain part of one’s energies to reach them. (Gellerman, 1963 as cited in Putti) In the view of Shartle, motivation is â€Å"a reported urge or tension to move in a given direction or to achieve a certain goal. (Shartle, 1956 as cited in Putti) Hence, Motivation can make the employees get all the targets settled by the Organisations. There are several ways by which employees can be motivated the most important is to address the needs of the employees. Just as the definition of basic human needs is a highly complex task, it naturally follows that there are no easy assumptions concerning what employees really want from the organisation. In various surveys, the following are some of the more typically specified wants. The first and the

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

VIDEO QUESTIONS Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

VIDEO QUESTIONS - Movie Review Example This species of snake is not killed by the high level of toxicity in the newt’s skin so the newt has to evolve and increasing its own toxicity to finally be also able to kill the garter snake which has developed a unique resistance to its poison, unlike what a newt does with its other predators. 3. What is the trade-off for the snake in developing greater resistance to toxicity? - The snake is temporarily paralyzed or slowed down for a few minutes after eating a newt but does not die. The snake moves slower as a trade-off for developing a higher resistance but then becomes more vulnerable to its own set of predators because it cannot move fast enough to get away. 5. Why are antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria so prevalent in prisons? The drugs used in the treatment of tuberculosis were of low quality and in inadequate amount or the regimen was not followed strictly so the TB microorganisms are not killed off entirely and started to evolve into new strains or variants or hybrids which were more resistant to antibiotics. 6. How can evolution domesticate a disease? – Misuse, overuse, and widespread use of antibiotics had effectively made many disease-causing microorganisms seen in the world today to become highly-resistant. But evolution can also domesticate a disease by making it less virulent by reducing its level of toxicity through some means, such as making its spread easier. 7. What does mutualistic symbiosis mean? Give an example. Mutualistic symbiosis means different species of animals or living organisms living together which benefit them both which is opposite to the usual evolutionary picture of constant competition or the so-called biological arms-race. A group (a type of fish) is cleaned by a tiny shrimp of its numerous parasites on its skin. 8. Describe the relation among allergies and asthma among children of farmers and non-farmer. – Children who lived on farms and in contact

What best explains peoples willingness to work hard Essay

What best explains peoples willingness to work hard - Essay Example Motivation is something abstract and the difficulties arise when one tries to explain its meaning and application. A wide variety of assumptions have been made on motivation by observing the resultant behaviour of motivation. Based on these assumptions and research findings, motivation has been defined in a number of ways. Vroom defines motivation as a process, which governs choices made by persons or lower organisms among alternative forms of voluntary activity. (Vroom, 1964 as cited in Putti) Motivations are the act of inducing an individual to follow a desired course of action. The desired course of action may be for the good of the individual or for the one who is inducing the individual towards a desired course of action or both. Zedeck and blood contend that motivation is a predisposition to act in a specific goal-directed way. (Sedeck & Blood, 1974 as cited in Putti) Atchison further defines Motivation as the immediate influence on the direction, vigor, and persistence of beha viour. (Atchison, 1964 as cited in Putti) on the other hand Gellerman defines motivation as steering one’s actions towards certain goals and committing a certain part of one’s energies to reach them. (Gellerman, 1963 as cited in Putti) In the view of Shartle, motivation is â€Å"a reported urge or tension to move in a given direction or to achieve a certain goal. (Shartle, 1956 as cited in Putti) Hence, Motivation can make the employees get all the targets settled by the Organisations. There are several ways by which employees can be motivated the most important is to address the needs of the employees. Just as the definition of basic human needs is a highly complex task, it naturally follows that there are no easy assumptions concerning what employees really want from the organisation. In various surveys, the following are some of the more typically specified wants. The first and the

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

Activation Of T Lymphocytes Essay Example for Free

Activation Of T Lymphocytes Essay Different types of T lymphocytes exist and each type performs a specialized function.   Helper T cells, also known as TH cells, serve as messengers of the immune system.   When helper T cells are activated, these cells proliferate and produce cytokines, which are small proteins that control the extent of immune response that a biological organism will express.   Several types of cytokines exist and each cytokine triggers the maturation of helper T cells into specific subtypes such as helper T cell subtype 1, 2 and 17 (Balandina et al. , 2005). Another type of T lymphocyte is the cytotoxic T cell (CTL), which is also known as the TC cell.   Cytotoxic T cells are responsible for the destruction of cells that were infected by viruses, as well as for the annihilation of tumor cells.   These cells also play a major role in determining whether a cell is normally part of the system or a foreign cell.   Cytotoxic T cells are known to be the first in line to react and reject if an organ transplanted into a recipient is not compatible in terms of tissue compatibility. The cytotoxic T cells that are associated with tissue rejection are designated at CD8+ T cells, based on the idea that these cytotoxic T cells produce a specific CD8 glycoprotein that is displayed on its cell membrane.   These CD8 glycoproteins interact with helper T lymphocytes, of which may trigger its transformation into regulatory T cells.   The major role of regulatory T cells is to inhibit the onset of an autoimmune disorder within the system of the organism. Another type of T lymphocyte is the memory T cell which is produced as soon as an infection occurs in an individual.   These specific T cells continue to circulate in the blood system for several months even when the infection has been stopped.   Memory T cells further differentiate into effector T cells when they find the same antigen that was associated with the previous infection, hence the term memory is appropriate to apply to this type of function.   Two general types of memory T cells include the central and effector cells.  Ã‚   Memory T cells are known to carry either the CD4 or the CD8 glycoprotein on its plasma membrane (Wildin et al., 2001). Regulatory T cells are another type of T lymphocytes that play a crucial role in sustaining the tolerance of the immune system (Khattri et al., 2003).   These T cells were earlier called suppressor T cells and their primary role is to prevent immunity that is caused by other T cells during the later stages of an immune response (Fontenot et al., 2003).   Regulatory T cells are also responsible for inhibiting the immune reaction towards other cells of the body or self cells because this is important in maintaining the stability of the entire immunological system. Specific conditions result in the immune response towards self cells and this is usually observed when the thymus experiences difficulty in distinguishing self cells from non-self or foreign cells.   There are two major types of CD4+ regulatory T cells that have been characterized.   Naturally occurring regulatory T cells originate from the thymus and are sometimes referred to as CD4/CD25/ForP3 T regulatory cells. The other major type of CD4+ regulatory T cell is the adaptive T regulatory cell which is produced when an innate immune response occurs.   This type of cell is also called Tr1 or Th3 cell (Hori et al., 2003).   A distinguishing feature that facilitates is the differentiation of naturally occurring T regulatory cells from the rest of types of T lymphocytes is the occurrence of the FoxP3 molecule that is situated within the cytoplasm.   Research has shown that mutations incurred in the FOXP3 gene results in the inability of regulatory T cells to differentiate, which in turn influences the onset of the lethal condition of autoimmunity. Another type of T lymphocyte is the natural killer T cell which is serves as the communicator between the adaptive and the innate immune systems.   Different from the standard T lymphocyte that identifies protein antigens that are harbored by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), the natural killer T lymphocytes distinguish glycolipid antigens that are shown by the protein molecule CD1d.   The natural killer T lymphocyte is then activated and subsequently acquires the ability to execute specific functions that are related to Th and Tc cells, including the secretion of cytokines and the expression of cytolytic molecules that are responsible for the destruction of foreign cells that have invaded the body. Gamma-delta T lymphocytes represent a small subtype of T cells that carry a unique receptor on their plasma membrane.   Most of the T lymphocytes carry a receptor that is comprised by two strings of alpha and beta glycoproteins.   In gamma-delta T lymphocytes, the receptor is composed of a gamma and a delta glycoprotein string.   Gamma-delta T lymphocytes are quite rare, comprising only approximately 5% of the entire T lymphocyte population but are found in high concentrations in the epithelial lining of the stomach, as part of population of intraepithelial lymphocytes. Protein antigens that trigger a response from gamma-delta T cells have still yet to be determined.   It is interesting to know that gamma-delta T lymphocytes are not exclusively assigned to carry major histocompatibility complex molecules and are actually capable of identifying entire proteins than simply perceiving short protein chains carried by the major histocompatibility complex molecules on lymphocytes that harbor antigens. There are particular gamma-delta T cells that have the capacity to identify a specific type of major histocompatibility complex molecules, specifically class IB.   In the human immune system, the Vgamma9/Vdelta2 T lymphocyte makes up the majority of the gamma-delta T lymphocyte population that is circulating in the bloodstream.   These specific T lymphocytes have the function of quickly reacting to a tiny metabolite that originates from microorganisms, known as the isopentenyl pyrophosphate precursor.   Another type of T lymphocyte is the autoaggressive T cell which is highly specialized based on its ability to secrete the CD40 protein molecule (Miura et al., 2004).   CD40 is generally linked to T lymphocytes that present fragments of an antigen and this protein molecule is commonly produced by a subtype of T helper lymphocytes. Th40 cells are present in all human beings but the levels of this specific type of cells quickly increase during conditions of autoimmunity.   In patients diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus, the Th40 cells usually react to self-antigens.   In the case of patients diagnosed with non-autoimmune individuals, the Th40 lymphocytes do not react with these antigens.   An important function of the CD40 protein molecule on T lymphocytes is to trigger the recombinase proteins RAG1 and RAG2 in directing the receptor of a T lymphocyte. The receptor of a T lymphocyte serves as the route through which a T lymphocyte is able to identify a specific antigen.   It has been determined that the two recombinase proteins be produced exclusively in the thymus during the development of T lymphocytes.   It was, however, observed that the RAG proteins were secreted again by the T lymphocytes that were circulating in the bloodstream.   In addition, it was also observed that the CD40 protein associated with Th40 lymphocytes, resulting in the production of RAG proteins.   Subsequent to the expression of the RAG proteins, modifications in the receptor of the T cells take place, suggesting that the Th40 lymphocytes carry the ability to adapt for the entire duration of an individual’s life. The procedure of modifying the expression of the receptors of T cells that are circulating in the bloodstream has been names as TDR revision.   Research has reported that TCR revision influences the expansion of the repertoire of T lymphocytes, as well as generates T lymphocytes that are autoaggressive.   This observation therefore shows that the revision of the receptors of T cells is another method of T lymphocyte tolerance. THE DEVELOPMENT OF T LYMPHOCYTES IN THE THYMUS T lymphocytes are developed from the stem cells of the hematopoietic system which is located in the bone marrow.   These stem cells migrate from the bone marrow to the thymus, where they are expected to proliferate through the process of cell division and generate immature thymocytes.   Young thymocytes generally do not secrete any CD4 or CD8 proteins hence these cells have been described as CD4-CD8- cells. During their course of development, the young thymocytes acquire the capability of secreting CD4 and CD8 molecules and these thymocytes are now classified as CD4+CD8+ (Sakaguchi, 2000).   Further maturation of these cells involves the specific secretion of only one protein, either the CD4 or the CD8 molecule.   Once this has been determined in each thymocytes, these cells are then expelled by the thymus in order for them to circulate to the rest of the body.   Approximately 98% of the thymocytes produced by the thymus are expected to disintegrate during its maturation, resulting in only 2% of the thymocytes reaching maturity and categorically expelled by the thymus as immunocompetent T lymphocytes. Immature thymocytes that harbor the two types of antigens, CD4 and CD8, migrate into the core of the thymus in order to associate with antigens that are generated by the T lymphocyte.   These thymocytes interact with the major histocompatibility complex molecules that are present of the plasma membrane of the cells of the epithelium.   Only a specific fraction of thymocytes will be able to completely bind with the major histocompatibility complex molecules thus resulting in a signal that indicates the survival of the thymocyte. The rest of the thymocytes that were not able to achieve a complete association with the major histocompatibility complex molecules are thus classified as incapable of performing immune functions or even illicit an immune response.   This specific group of thymocytes thus undergoes the process of apoptosis, which involved the disintegration of the nucleus which eventually leads to cell death.   The cellular debris that results from the apoptotic pathway are enveloped and eaten by macrophages.   The entire process of differentiating immuno-competent from immuno-incompetent thymocytes based on the ability to illicit an immune reaction is known as positive selection. Thymocytes that endure positive selection travel towards the perimeter of the cortical and middle regions of the thymus. While situated in the middle region of the thymus, the thymocytes are presented with an antigen of its self in association with the major histocompatibility complex molecules on antigen-presenting cells (APCs), including the dendritic cells and macrophages.   Thymocytes that intensely associate with the antigen are sent a signal that induces their programmed death and the rest of the thymocytes that were first generated are trigger to disintegrate during this selection process in the thymus. A small fraction of the cells that survived is induced to develop regulatory T cells.   The other cells subsequently depart the thymus as differentiation naive T lymphocytes.   This mechanism is designated as negative selection, an essential process of immunological tolerance that controls the development of T lymphocytes that react to self cells and are able of to cause an autoimmune disease in the body of an individual (Shevach, 2000). Although the specific mechanisms of activation vary slightly between different types of T cells, the two-signal model in CD4+ T cells holds true for most. Activation of CD4+ T cells occurs through the engagement of both the T cell receptor and CD28 on the T cell by the Major histocompatibility complex peptide and B7 family members on the APC respectively. Both are required for production of an effective immune response; in the absence of CD28 co-stimulation, T cell receptor signalling alone results in anergy. The signalling pathways downstream from both CD28 and the T cell receptor involve many proteins. The first signal is provided by binding of the T cell receptor to a short peptide presented by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on another cell. This ensures that only a T cell with a TCR specific to that peptide is activated. The partner cell is usually a professional antigen presenting cell (APC), usually a dendritic cell in the case of naà ¯ve responses, although B cells and macrophages can be important APCs. The peptides presented to CD8+ T cells by MHC class I molecules are 8-9 amino acids in length; the peptides presented to CD4+ cells by MHC class II molecules are longer, as the ends of the binding cleft of the MHC class II molecule are open. The second signal comes from co-stimulation, in which surface receptors on the APC are induced by a relatively small number of stimuli, usually products of pathogens, but sometimes breakdown products of cells, such as necrotic-bodies or heat-shock proteins (Brunkow et al., 2001). The only co-stimulatory receptor expressed constitutively by naà ¯ve T cells is CD28, so co-stimulation for these cells comes from the CD80 and CD86 proteins on the APC. Other receptors are expressed upon activation of the T cell, such as OX40 and ICOS, but these largely depend upon CD28 for their expression. The second signal licenses the T cell to respond to an antigen. Without it, the T cell becomes anergic and it becomes more difficult for it to activate in future. This mechanism prevents inappropriate responses to self, as self-peptides will not usually be presented with suitable co-stimulation. The T cell receptor exists as a complex of several proteins. The actual T cell receptor is composed of two separate peptide chains which are produced from the independent T cell receptor alpha and beta (TCR? and TCR?) genes. The other proteins in the complex are the CD3 proteins; CD3 and CD3 heterodimers and most importantly a CD3? homodimer which has a total of six ITAM motifs. The ITAM motifs on the CD3? can be phosphorylated by Lck and in turn recruit ZAP-70. Lck and/or ZAP-70 can also phosphorylate the tyrosines on many other molecules, not least CD28, Trim, LAT and SLP-76, which allows the aggregation of signalling complexes around these proteins. Phosphorylated LAT recruits SLP-76 to the membrane, where it can then bring in PLC?, VAV1, Itk and potentially PI3K. Both PLC? and PI3K act on PI(4,5)P2 on the inner leaflet of the membrane to create the active intermediaries di-acyl glycerol (DAG), inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and phosphatidlyinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3). DAG binds and activates some PKCs, most importantly in T cells PKC?, which is important for activating the transcription factors NF-?B and AP-1. IP3 is released from the membrane by PLC? and diffuses rapidly to activate receptors on the ER which induce the release of calcium. The released calcium then activates calcineurin, and calcineurin activates NFAT, which then translocates to the nucleus. NFAT is a transcription factor which activates the transcription of a pleiotropic set of genes, most notably IL-2, a cytokine which promotes long term proliferation of activated T cells. Overview of interactions between T cells and APCs T cells are a subset of lymphocytes that play a large role in the cell-mediated immune response of adaptive immunity. T lymphocytes are divided into 2 major classes distinguished by the expression of the cell surface molecules CD4 or CD8. CD8 cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) primarily destroy virus-infected cells whereasCD4 helper T lymphocytes are involved in activating B cells and macrophages. The response of both classes of T lymphocytes is dependent on interactions through the T cell receptor (TCR) and coreceptors (CD4 or CD8) with target APCs that present peptides in the context of MHC class I or class II molecules. MHC class I and class II molecules are structurally similar but differ in their source of antigenic peptide and in the transport mechanisms for their peptides. Class I MHC molecules present self peptides or viral products from the cytosol to CD8 T lymphocytes, whereas MHC class II molecules present peptides from pathogens that either reside or were endocytosed into intracellular compartments (Fontenot and Rudensky, 2005). T cells are activated on encountering antigen, which results in either lysis of target cells by CD8 T lymphocytes or recruitment of other effector cells by CD4 cells.   Modulation of the plasma membrane alters the T cell Ca2+ response.   A series of studies from showedthat unsaturated free fatty acids (FFAs) could inhibit specific aspects of cytotoxic T cell function by perturbing membranes.   Initially, it was shown that short-term exposure of murine allogeneic effector T cells to low levels of unsaturated FFAs (10 mol/L), including PUFAs, inhibited lysis of target APCs. The change in lysis of target cells was a direct consequence of the FFA added to the CTLs, because lysis could be inhibited by extracting the unsaturated FFA with bovine serum albumin before CTL-target conjugation. Specific aspects of T cell function inhibited by unsaturated lipids included the initial rise in intracellular [Ca2+] on conjugate formation, protein phosphorylation events and subsequent CTL esterase release.   On the other hand, release of inositol phosphates and binding to target cells were unaffected. Because the inhibition in CTL calcium release linearly correlated with the decrease in membrane acyl chain order induced by the presence of increasing unsaturation in the plasma membrane , it was hypothesized that modulation of membrane structure affected T cell Ca2+ signaling. References Balandina A, Lecart S, Dartevelle P, Saoudi A and Berrih-Aknin S (2005):   Functional defect of regulatory CD4( )CD25 T cells in the thymus of patients with autoimmune myasthenia gravis. Blood   105:735–741. Brunkow ME, Jeffery EW, Hjerrild KA, Paeper B, Clark LB, Yasayko SA, Wilkinson JE, Galas D, Ziegler SF and Ramsdell F (2001):   Disruption of a new forkhead/winged-helix protein, scurfin, results in the fatal lymphoproliferative disorder of the scurfy mouse. Nat. Genet.   27:68–73. Fontenot JD, Gavin MA and Rudensky AY (2003):   Foxp3 programs the development and function of CD4-CD25 regulatory T cells. Nat. Immunol.   4:330–336. Fontenot JD and Rudensky AY (2005):   A well adapted regulatory contrivance:   Regulatory T cell development and the forkhead family transcription factor Foxp3. Nat. Immunol. 6:331–337. Hori S, Nomura T and Sakaguchi S (2003):   Control of regulatory T cell development by the transcription factor Foxp3. Science 299:1057–1061 Khattri R, Cox T, Yasayko SA and Ramsdell F (2003):   An essential role for Scurfin in CD4-CD25 T regulatory cells. Nat. Immunol.   4:337–342. Miura Y, Thoburn CJ, Bright EC, Phelps ML, Shin T, Matsui EC, Matsui WH, Arai S, Fuchs EJ and Vogelsang GB (2004):   Association of Foxp3 regulatory gene expression with graft-versus-host disease. Blood   104:2187–2193. Sakaguchi S (2000):   Regulatory T cells: key controllers of immunologic self-tolerance.   Cell 101:455–458. Shevach EM (2000): Regulatory T cells in autoimmmunity. Annu. Rev. Immunol.   18:423–449. Wildin RS, Ramsdell F, Peake J, Faravelli F, Casanova JL, Buist N, Levy-Lahad E, Mazzella M, Goulet O and Perroni L (2001): X-linked neonatal diabetes mellitus, enteropathy and endocrinopathy syndrome is the human equivalent of mouse scurfy. Nat. Genet.   27:18–20.